In myths

Strabo recorded that Erythrae "founded by Cnopus, who also was a spurious son of Codrus". That is why the town was sometimes referred to as Cnopopolis. Codrus was called by Strabo the king of the Athenians, and he had numerous sons apparently responsible for a great part of the Greek colonization in Asia Minor. His other sons were supposed to found Ephesus (Androclus), Myus (Cydrelus), and Teos (Nauclus).

On the other hand, Pausanias informs us that the Erythraeans came originally from Crete, led by Erythrus the son of Rhadamanthus, and that this Erythrus was the founder of their city. He adds that the city was inhabited at the same time by Lycians, Carians, and Pamphylians. Erythrus' name means literally Red, and he was immortalised in the name of the city he founded. However, it is very likely that Erythrae was actually named after the reddish colour of the local soil. Erythrus was depicted on the coins minted in Erythrae, for instance on the drachmas from 450 to 420 BCE, which depicted him standing next to his horse.

Pausanias goes on to explain that the son of the Athenian Knig Codrus, called Cleopus "gathered men from all the cities of Ionia, so many from each, and introduced them as settlers among the Erythraeans". This Cleopus might be the same person as Cnopus mentioned by Strabo, but in Pausanias' version he was not the founder of Erythrae but only settled in the previously existing town. As the archaeological finds from Erythrae include ivory statuettes in Cretan and Rhodian style, they seem to confirm Pausanias' conviction that the city was founded by the Cretans.

Polyaenus, in his Stratagems in War described how Cnopus, one of the race Codrus, got possession of Erythrae by a clever stratagem with the help of a Thessalian priestess. In this version of the founding myth of Erythrae, Cnopus went to war with the people who had previously lived in this location, at the direction of the oracle. First, he contacted the Thessalian priestess of goddess Hecate called Enodia abd sent envoys to the Thessalians who came back with the priestess named Chrysame. She had great knowledge of magical properties of herbs and used them to feed a specially selected bull in order to drive it to madness. Her mixture was so strong that not only the bull but also all people who ate its meat were to be driven insane.

When encamped against the enemies, the priestess started the preparations for the bull's sacrifice, but the animal broke loose and ran wild into the plain. The Erythraeans interpreted it as a happy omen for them, captured the bull, and sacrificed it to their gods. Then every one of them ate a piece of its meat, and as the result the whole Erythraean army was seized with madness. This was the moment for Cnopus to attack the Erythraeans who were incapable of defending themselves. They were cut down and Cnopus was made the master of Erythrae. This story, while violent and tragic, is actually more probable than Pausanias' version where Cnopus and his men simply arrived at Erythrae and started peaceful coexistence with the original inhabitants of the city.

After the city of Erythrae was founded, or resettled, it was initially ruled by the members of the Athenian royal house, related to Codrus. The form of the government in Erythrae was recorded by Aristotle in his Politics: "Another case was at Erythrae, where at the time of the oligarchy of the Basilidae in ancient days, although the persons in the government directed affairs well, nevertheless the common people were resentful because they were governed by a few, and brought about a revolution of the constitution". It is worth noting that the family name - the Basilidae - implies a claim to royal ancestry and may be linked to King Codrus.

Athenaeus of Naucratis preserved the fragment written by Hippias, a local historian from Erythrae, active in the Hellenistic period. Hippias recorded the story of the fight for the political control over his home town. He described how Cnopus, the king of Erythrae, was overthrown by the oligarchic tyrants Ortyges, Iros, and Echaros. This trio were the friends of the duo of the tyrants of Chios, called Polyteknos and Amphiklos. The tyrants of Erythrae ruled the city as dreadful despots, enraging the population. Finally they were overthrown and expelled by Hippotes, described as the tyrant-slayer, and the brother of the dead king Cnopus.

Although King Cnopus from Hippias' story has the same name as the legendary founder of the city, it is possibly just the result of confusion. Most probably, the story has a moralistic goal and is just an illustration how the Erythraeans fought against the tyrants, a scenario common in many Greek cities in the 7th century BCE. On the other hand, an early-third-century decree from Erythrae describes how an oligarchy had defaced the statue of a local tyrannicide and might be a partial confirmation of the story.

The ancient city of Erythrae was well-known for its Herakleion, a sacred area dedicated to Heracles and decorated with an Egyptian-type cult statue. The legend of how the city came to own this statue was recorded by Pausanias: "There was a wooden raft, on which the god set out from Tyre in Phoenicia. The reason for this we are not told even by the Erythraeans themselves".

According to the story, when the raft reached the Ionian Sea it came to rest at the cape called Mesate which is on the mainland, just midway between the harbour of the Erythraeans and the island of Chios both the Erythraeans and the Chians tried to board the raft but failed. Finally, a blind fisherman from Erythrae called Phormio had a dream in which he was told that only a rope made of women's hair could be used to pull the raft to shore.

The women of Erythrae refused to cut their hair, but the Thracian women living there, both free and slave, agreed to do so. Then, the men of Erythrae towed the raft ashore. Later, ropes were made from the Thracian women's hair and the raft and its precious cargo were brought to shore. As a result, only Thracian women were allowed to enter the temple. Moreover, the fisherman recovered his sight and retained it for the rest of his life.

Sadly, the site of the Herakleion remains unknown. The cult statue described by Pausanias as "absolutely Egyptian, if ever there was such" was depicted on the coins minted in the city. Moreover, there were electrum coins with the head of Heracles wearing a lion's skin as a headgear, issued from the 6th century BCE onwards.

Another notable temple in Erythrae was the one dedicated to Athena Polias as recorded by Pausanias. It stood on the acropolis and had a huge wooden image of this goddess sitting on a throne. Luckily, its location is known, and the foundations are still visible.

History

Archaic times

In the Archaic period Erythrae belonged to the Ionian League, the union of twelve Ionian cities on the west coast of Asia Minor, apparently founded in the 7th century BCE. Herodotus claims that the Erythraeans shared the same dialect as the inhabitants of the island of Chios, another member of the League.

Despite the fact that they shared the language, Chios and Erythrae went to war against each other sometime during the 7th century BCE. Herodotus recorded this fact very briefly in the context of the later military conflict between Miletus and the kingdom of Lydia. He mentioned that: "None of the Ionians helped to lighten this war for the Milesians, except the Chians: these lent their aid in return for a similar service done for them; for the Milesians had previously helped the Chians in their war against the Erythraeans".

Pausanias records the role of the Erythraeans in making Phocaea a member of the Ionian League: "When the Ionians would not admit them [the people of Phocaea, to the north of Erythrae] to the Ionian confederacy until they accepted kings of the race of the Codridae, they accepted Deoetes, Periclus, and Abartus from Erythrae and from Teos."

As it was the case for many Greek colonies in Asia Minor, also Erythrae founded its own colonies. Pausanias noted that: "the people of Parium on the Hellespont [...] were originally colonists from Erythrae in Ionia". However, Strabo made it a joint settlement, not only of the Erythraeans, but also the Milesians and the island of Paros. Parium (or Parion) was a city in Mysia on the Hellespont, today located within the village of Kemer in the township of Biga in Çanakkale Province.

From the early days of the city's existence, it was home to the prophetess presiding over the Apollonian oracle. Strabo recorded that: "Erythrae was the native place of the Sibyl, an ancient inspired prophetess". The word Sibyl means simply the prophetess, but the name of the sibyl from Erythrae was recorded as Herophile who is thought to have lived in the eighth century BCE. Her name signalises that she was a lover or a disciple of Hera.

Possibly, there were more prophetesses over the centuries, revealing the future to those who could ask precise questions because the value of their answers depended upon the wording of the questions. The Erythraean Sibyl gave her answers in the form called acrostic where the prophecies written on leaves and arranged so that the initial letters of the leaves always formed a word.

Several examples of the Erythraean Sibyl's prophecies were recorded. Apollodorus of Erythrae, who spoke of the Erythraean Sibyl as his fellow-citizen, stated that she had predicted the Trojan War and prophesied to the Greeks both that Troy would be destroyed and that Homer would write falsehoods. The Erythraean Sibyl is also believed to have made very precise statements about the coming of Christ. Therefore, in Christian iconography, she is credited with foretelling the advent of the Redeemer, which was expressed in the form of an acrostic whose initial letters spelled out "Jesus Christ, God's Son, Saviour".

The Erythraean Sibyl is also an important part of the ancient Roman tradition concerning the so-called Sibylline books, a collection of oracular utterances, set out in Greek hexameter verses. According to this tradition, they were bought from a sibyl by Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome, who ruled from 534 to 509 BCE. These books were consulted during crucial moments in the history of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire.

The books were said to have been written by the Hellespontine Sibyl in the temple of Apollo at Gergis on Mount Ida in the Troad in Asia Minor. From there the books somehow passed to Erythrae, where they gained fame as the oracles of the Erythraean Sibyl. Finally, they appeared to find their way to Cumae on the mainland in Italy, where Lucius Tarquinius Superbus purchased a part of the collection after a very difficult negotiation involving the destruction of the two thirds of them.

The Erythraean Sibyl was also active in the much later period, at the time of Alexander the Great, i.e. the 4th century BCE. She was called Athenais, and according to Strabo, was one of the oracles which claimed divine descent for Alexander the Great.

The depictions of the Erythraean Sibyl include not only ancient coins, such as the ones from the 1st century BCE, where she is depicted with hair elaborately decorated with jewels and enclosed in a sling, tied with bands, but also numerous later instances. For examples, the Erythraean Sibyl is shown on a floor mosaic in the Cathedral of Siena in Italy and in mediaeval paintings in Salisbury Cathedral in England. The most famous depiction is possibly the one made by Michelangelo on the Sistine Chapel ceiling in Vatican.

Like many other Greek cities in Asia Minor, also Erythrae came under the rule of Lydia around 560 BCE, when the famous King Croesus brought mainland Ionia, Aeolis, Caria, and Doris under the direct control of the Lydian Empire. Herodotus recorded the extent of the lands controlled by Croesus: "Croesus was a Lydian by birth, son of Alyattes, and sovereign of all the nations west of the river Halys [modern Kızılırmak River], which flows from the south between Syria and Paphlagonia and empties into the sea called Euxine. [...] Before the reign of Croesus, all Greeks were free".

Not much later, the Persian king Cyrus the Great marched with his army against the Lydians and captured the capital city of Sardis by 546 BCE. Thus, Erythrae became part of the Achaemenid Empire as the city of the Satrapy of Lydia.

Classical period

During the Ionian Revolt against the Persian rule in 499 BCE, Erythrae contributed eight ships to the rebel fleet that was defeated at the naval Battle of Lade in 494 BCE. The contribution of Erythrae was actually minimal, as for instance Chios provided 100 ships and Miletus - 80. This could mean that Erythrae was not a significant city at the time but rather a small town.

On the other hand, the Erythraean tribute paid to the treasury of the Delian League, founded in 478 BCE under the hegemony of Athens, amounted to the considerable sum of seven talents. For comparison, Ephesus, one of the Greek main cities in Asia Minor, paid 7.5 talents. This signifies that Erythrae was an important and wealth city at the time, so possibly the small number of ships they had sent to the Battle of Lade could be interpreted as the reluctance to participate in the revolt.

It is unclear when Erythrae entered the League, and moreover the city may have been reluctant to join an alliance in which Chios, a long-standing competitor of Erythrae, was a founding and leading member. Thus, one can say only that Erythrae most likely joined the League after a few years but before the late 450s. It is believed, based on the absence of Erythrae from the contribution lists, that the city, refusing to pay tribute, left the Delian League in the 450s. The revolt, if it happened at all, was a short-lived one, as Erythrae reappeared on the tribute lists of 450/49 BCE. The Athenian tribute lists also provide interesting information concerning the vast area controlled by Erythrae. It appears that there were five dependent settlements in its territory, called Embaton, Boutheia, Ptelion, Sidoussa, and Polichna.

Later, during the Peloponnesian War, fought between 431 and 404 BCE between Athens and Sparta and their respective allies for the hegemony of the Greek world, Erythrae revolted against the Athenian hegemony, together with Chios and Clazomenae, in 412 BE. The harbour of Erythrae was used as a base for the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta. In this context, the city is mentioned by Thucydides in \textit{The Peloponnesian War}: "Pedaritus, son of Leon, who had been sent by the Lacedaemonians to take the command at Chios, they despatched by land as far as Erythrae with the mercenaries taken from Amorges; appointing Philip to remain as governor of Miletus".

Apparently, Erythrae changed its allegiance once again. After the Battle of Cnidus fought in 394 BCE between the Achaemenid Empire and the Spartan fleets during the Corinthian War, the city received Conon, a joint commander of the Persian fleet who destroyed the Spartan fleet. The Erythraeans paid him honours, as recorded by an extant inscription. From that moment, Erythrae was allied with Athens and Persia, and remained under the Persian control until the arrival of Alexander the Great in Ionia.

The Persians gave control of the part of their empire called Caria, located to the south of Ionia, to the local dynasty of the Hecatomnids. Its most famous member was Mausolus, best known for his monumental tomb and one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. In the middle of the 4th century BCE, he expanded the borders of his territory by invading Ionia and controlling some of its cities. His influences reached as far to the north as Erythrae where his activities were recorded by the preserved inscriptions.

Erythrae granted honours to Mausolus and his sister-wife Artemisia, and the special decree declared that Mausolus was the benefactor to the city. The Erythraeans also made him their citizen and gave him the right to sail into their harbour without needing permission. Finally, they erected crowned status for the royal pair, a bronze one of Mausolus in the agora and a stone one of Artemisia, beside the temple of Athena.

When first Mausolus and then his wife Artemisia died, they were replaced by their siblings, Idrieus and his sister-wife Ada. Idrieus, who reigned from 351 to 344 BCE, was also honoured by an inscription from Erythrae which recorded that he was offered citizenship of the city if he wished it. Idrieus was called the benefactor and citizen, and Erythrae offered him freedom from taxation and rights in the courts.

Approximately at the same time, Erythrae signed a treaty with a Greek tyrant of Atarneus, the city located further to the north, in the region of Aeolis. This tyrant was called Hermias, and he went on to expand his rule to other neighbouring cities, such as Assos. The treaty he signed with Erythrae assured both parties of economic rights and mutual protection in the case of war.

Following the Peloponnesian War and the destruction of Athenian power, Sparta ceded Ionia back to Persia in the 387 BCE with the Peace of Antalcidas. Thus, until the campaign of Alexander the Great in 334 BCE, Ionia was under Persian rule. In this period, Ionia was a separate satrapy and the Ionian cities such as Erythrae retained significant autonomy.

However, when Alexander the Great, after the battle of the Granicus in 334 BCE, conquered the region of Ionia, he presented his invasion as a liberation of the Greeks of Asia from the Persians. Most of the Ionian cities, with the notable exception of Miletus, submitted to the Macedonian conqueror and were treated generously. This was also the case of Erythrae.

The specific location of Erythrae, on the long Urla-Karaburun-Çeşme Peninsula which has a very long coastline, gave Alexander the Great an idea to cut a canal through the isthmus near modern-day Urla. This would connect the Hermaean Bay (Izmir Gulf) in the north and the Cayster River Bay (Gulf of Kuşadası) in the south, significantly reducing the time of the sea voyage along the coast. At the same time, the part of the peninsula would be cut from the mainland and Erythrae would became a settlement on an island.

This plan was noted by Pliny the Elder who wrote that: "Next comes the Promontory of Coryceium, and then Mount Mimas, which projects 150 miles into the sea, and as it approaches the mainland sinks down into extensive plains. It was at this place that Alexander the Great gave orders for the plain to be cut through, a distance of seven miles and a half, for the purpose of joining the two gulfs and making an island of Erythrae and Mimas". The plan came to nothing, as confirmed by Pausanias: "Alexander the son of Philip wished to dig through Mimas, and his attempt to do this was his only unsuccessful project".

There was also another episode connecting Alexander the Great's deeds and the history of Erythrae. While in Egypt in 332 BCE, Alexander aimed at legitimising his power and strengthening his position. To achieve this, he consulted the renowned Amun-Ra oracle at the Siwa Oasis, where he was announced to be the son of the god Amun himself. Erythrae was the seat of an oracle, too, and we learn from Strabo that the Erythraean Athenais also declared the divine descent of the Macedonian king along with the oracle from Didyma, located in Asia Minor further to the south from Erythrae. From this moment on, Alexander often referred to himself as the son of Zeus-Amun to impress the foreigners whom he was conquering.

Another link between Alexander the Great and the city of Erythrae is related to the last days of the Macedonian king. These moments were recorded in his Court Journal, which, as Athenaeus recorded, was compiled by Eumenes the Cardian, and Diodotus the Erythraean. Eumenes later became famous as one of the successors of Alexander the Great who championed the cause of the Macedonian Argead royal house, but Diodotus from Erythrae vanished from the pages of history apart from this short mention by Athenaeus

Hellenistic times

In the wars that started between Alexander the Great's successors after his death in 323 BCE, the whole territory of Ionia was a contested territory, passing from hands to hands between the Antigonid, Seleucid, and Ptolemaic kingdoms. At one point, Erythrae belonged to Antigonus I Monophthalmus and then to Seleucus I Nicator.

Also in this period, a theatre was erected in the city, cut into the north slope of the acropolis hill. This can be interpreted as the sign of Erythrae's prosperity in the Hellenistic times. The town was also protected by the line of fortifications made of fine ashlar masonry, constructed at the end of the 4th century BCE or the beginning of the 3rd century BCE.

According to the Treaty of Apamea of 188 BCE, which followed the Roman–Seleucid War between the Roman Republic and Antiochus III, ruler of the Seleucid Empire, Ionia was placed under the control of the Attalid Kingdom of Pergamon. However, many of the Greek cities, as Rome's allies, were granted autonomy. This was also the case of Erythrae, which in this war declared the support of the Roman side against Antiochus. The Erythraeans were also rewarded with some territories in return for their services.

Soon, Erythraeans witnessed an episode of the Third Macedonian War, fought between the Roman Republic and King Perseus of Macedon between 171 and 168 BCE. As Livy reported, thirty-five vessels which were allied to Rome and carried about one thousand of Galatian troops, as well as a number of horses, were sent by Eumenes II to his brother Attalus. They were headed to Macedonia, but Perseus' naval commander Antenor intercepted the fleet between Erythrae and Chios.

Livy described these events as the comedy of errors: "When Antenor received a signal that these ships were at sea, he started for Sabota and met them in the narrowest part of the channel between the headland of Erythrae and Chios. The last thing that Eumenes's officers expected was the appearance of a Macedonian fleet cruising in those waters. They first thought that they were Romans and then that it was Attalus or some that had been sent back by Attalus from the Roman camp and were on their way to Pergamum. But when the build of the approaching vessels could no longer be mistaken and the prows steering straight for them at increasing speed revealed the approach of an enemy, there was great alarm. The clumsy nature of their ships and the difficulty of keeping the Gauls [i.e. Galatian troops aboard] quiet, destroyed all hope of resistance. Some of those who were nearer to the mainland swam to Erythrae; others crowded on all sail and ran their ships aground in Chios, and, abandoning the horses, fled in wild disorder towards the city".

Roman rule

After the last ruler of Pergamon Kingdom bequeathed his lands to Rome, Erythrae became a free city attached to the Roman province of Asia. By 88 BCE, King Mithridates VI of Pontus, a great enemy of Rome, had conquered virtually all of Asia and instigated a revolt against Rome, ordering the slaughter of all Romans and Italians in the province, now known as the Asiatic Vespers. Contemporary estimates of the casualties of this genocide ranged from 80,000 up to 150,000. However, we do not know if Erythrae was actually one of the affected cities. It is quite possible that it was because the nearby island of Chios definitely suffered.

Strabo, a famous Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian who lived in Asia Minor during the transitional period of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire, noted that one of the famous figures from Erythrae was Heracleides, a physician of the school of Herophilus. He was a contemporary of Strabo: "[...] and in our age there was Heracleides the Herophilian physician, a native of Erythrae, a fellow-student of Apollonius surnamed Mus".

Erythraeans also participated in the ancient Olympic Games and other sporting events as attested by Pausanias who noted that: "The Ionians of Erythrae dedicated a statue of Epitherses, son of Metrodorus, who won two boxing prizes at Olympia, two at Pytho, and also victories at Nemea and the Isthmus".

Although it was not recorded directly by the ancient sources, it is highly possible that Erythrae suffered the consequences of two disastrous earthquakes that hit Asia Minor in early first century CE. First, the so-called Lydia earthquake of 17 CE caused the destruction of at least twelve cities in the regions of Lydia and Ionia, including Smyrna and Temnos not far from Erythrae. Then, in 23 CE, another earthquake hit Ephesus and Kibyra, to the south-east of Erythrae.

Even if Erythrae was damaged by these natural disasters, it soon recovered to welcome one of the most-widely travelled Roman emperors, that is Hadrian. In 124 CE, he arrived to Erythrae by ship from the direction of Smyrna. The inscription found in Erythrae records that the city founded a festival in his honour, simply called Great Hadrianic Landing Festival (Megala Hadrianeia Epibateria): "The homeland and the sacred theatrical synod honoured Antonia Tyrannis Juliane, who was director of contests for the Great Hadrianeian Epibaterian contests in a glorious and trustworthy manner. They set up the statue from their own resources".

Moreover, Hadrian's visit gave the city an opportunity to spruce up its appearance. For instance, the Hellenistic-era theatre on the slope of the acropolis hill was renovated on this occasion. Its cavea and walls were repaired, and the orchestra was turned into an arena.

Byzantine era

The city continued to thrive long into the late Roman Empire and in the Byzantine periods. For instance, the Roman-style villa was constructed on the foundations of an earlier structure from the Hellenistic times and was modified at least twice, during the reign of Emperor Gallienus, i.e. in the mid-3rd century CE and in the Late Roman period. Also, the coins were minted in Erythrae to the later period of the Roman Empire.

Actually, Erythrae experienced a revival in the late Roman and in the early Byzantine period. The city got an aqueduct then, standing to the south of the acropolis hill along the south-north course and crossing the river. Thus, the city continued to prosper at that period.

When the Christianity reached the city, it became a suffragan of Ephesus and several names of the bishops of Erythrae has been preserved, including Eutychius (431), Dracontius (451), Theoctistus (553), Eustathius (787), and Arsaphius (868). From the later period, the records only mention bishop Michael in 1229. Moreover, an archon, a minor governor, had his quarters in Erythrae in the 9th and 10th centuries. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the village was named in official records as Erythra and Erythre.

Ottoman times

In 1333, the region of Erythrae was conquered by Umur Bey, the second Turkoman bey of Aydin, on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. From this moment on, the village started to be called Litri or Rithri, and later Ildiri. It seems to have been abandoned by the 16th century, along with the episcopal see. In time, a new fishing village developed on the shore below the acropolis of Erythrae. In 1575, the total population of this village was recorded as only 135 inhabitants.

Possibly, the most detailed description of the state of the Erythrae ruins in the 18th century comes from Richard Chandler's travelogue, Travels in Asia Minor. Chandler, accompanied by the painter William Pars, visited Erythrae during their travels in 1764-1766. His first impressions were: "The walls of Erythrae were erected on two semicircular rocky brows, and had square towers at regular distances. They were very thick, the stones massive and rugged, the masonry that called pseudisodomum. In the middle is a shallow, lively stream, clear as crystal, which turns a solitary mill in its way through thickets of myrtle and bushes to the sea. [...] Erythrae has been long deserted, and, like Clazomene, stripped even of its ruins, except some masses of hard cement, a few vaults of sepulchres, a fragment of inscribed architrave, a broken column or two, and a large stone, on which is carved a round shield. The bare rock afforded a natural foundation for the houses and public edifices, and the materials, when they were ruined, lay ready to be transported to Scio and other places, which continued to flourish. Some words were visible on one of the pedestals".

However, the village gradually grew and from the mid-18th century until the early 20th century, it was a significant harbour. It attracted smaller coasting steamers, and there was an active trade with Chios and Smyrna, i.e. modern-day Izmir. It this period, a significant part of the town's population was Greek. In the 19th century, the Greeks of the town constructed the Saint Matrona Church on the acropolis of ancient Erythrae.

When the Greco-Turkish War ended, the Treaty of Lausanne, signed in 1923, clarified the terms of the exchange of Greek-Turkish populations. The Greeks of Erythrae were resettled in a north-eastern suburb of Athens, which they called Nea Erythraia. They also built another Saint Matrona Church there. Their place in Ildır, as Erythrae is now called, was taken by the Turks from the area of Bosnia and Thessaloniki.